European Alternatives to Teachable
Looking for a European alternative to Teachable? Teachable, Inc. is a Delaware corporation in New York whose terms are governed by New York law and send disputes to confidential JAMS arbitration in New York County, with a waiver of class actions and jury trials, and its data processing terms give it general permission to use sub-processors.
Eleven European tools cover the job for people who sell courses, memberships and coaching online: course platforms, community and app builders, and all-in-one funnel suites, from companies in Ireland, Cyprus, France, Germany, Switzerland, Bulgaria, Austria and Poland.
How we rank these tools — 4-step process
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1
European ownership, verified
The company is headquartered and incorporated in the EU, EEA or Switzerland, and processes customer data in Europe. A US parent company disqualifies a tool from this page regardless of where its servers are.
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2
Category fit and hands-on review
What the tool actually does, who it suits, and where it falls short — checked against the vendor’s own documentation, changelog and pricing page rather than its marketing copy.
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3
Compliance and pricing check
GDPR posture, hosting location and the prices quoted on this page are verified against the vendor’s public pricing before publication, and re-checked when we revisit the category.
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Position on this page
Placement on this page can be paid, and that can affect which tools appear here and the order they appear in. It never buys a good review: a tool that fails the checks above is not here at any price, and payment does not change the shortcomings we write about. A vendor can ask us to correct a factual error — not to remove a criticism.
Vendors can pay for visibility on this page. It never changes what an entry says about a product, including the criticism, and we earn nothing when you click through to a vendor. Paid placement can affect which tools appear here and the order they appear in. Editorial policy
11 European Alternatives to Teachable
Systeme.io
Funnels, email, courses, community and affiliate tools in one account, with a free plan and no card
LearnyBox
French all-in-one for courses, funnels, email and webinars, with a permanent free plan and 0% commission
Teachizy
French course platform with a free plan, then unlimited learners at €49 a month and data hosted in France
LearnWorlds
Course platform with interactive video, a site builder and a mobile app, from a Cyprus company with a 30-day trial
Memberspot
German course and community platform with 0% transaction fees, from €49 a month and a 14-day trial
Mentortools
Swiss course, community and app platform with white-label branding and data hosted in Frankfurt
Coachy
Sofia course platform with a custom app, tests and certificates, a 30-day trial and German law
ablefy
Berlin checkout and sales platform with courses, memberships and communities, from €27 a month plus 2.7% + €0.50
Publigo
Polish-language course platform with no commission, from 87 zł + VAT a month or a one-off licence
FunnelCockpit
German funnel, email and member-area suite with an AI page builder, 14-day trial for €1, from €47 a month
LearningSuite
Graz course and community platform with its own app and servers in Frankfurt; demo call only, no public prices
Key takeaways
- Teachable, Inc. is a Delaware corporation in New York whose terms are governed by New York law and send disputes to confidential JAMS arbitration, and its DPA gives it general permission to use sub-processors.
- Systeme.io (Ireland) is the broadest all-in-one: courses, funnels, email, community and affiliate tools in a free plan with no card.
- LearnyBox and Teachizy (both France) each publish prices and a permanent free plan, with LearnyBox at 0% commission and Teachizy hosting data in France.
- LearnWorlds (Cyprus) is the closest to Teachable in shape as a pure course platform, with interactive video and a 30-day trial.
- Memberspot (Germany), Mentortools (Switzerland) and Coachy (Bulgaria) add a branded app or community on top of courses, and Memberspot charges no transaction fee.
- ablefy, Publigo, FunnelCockpit and LearningSuite fit narrower cases, and Publigo and LearningSuite are not in English.
Why people leave Teachable
Teachable is one of the best-known platforms for people who sell courses online. You upload video and lessons, set a price, and it handles the school site, checkout, student accounts and, on paid plans, coaching products, mobile apps and an affiliate program.
There is no free plan, but a 7-day trial and a 30-day guarantee, and the pricing page lists Starter at $39 a month ($29 on annual billing), Builder at $89 ($69) and Growth at $189 ($139), in dollars, plus a custom tier.
It is run by Teachable, Inc., a Delaware corporation in New York, and the DPA says it is part of Hotmart Company.
Under its terms the agreement is governed by New York law, and disputes go to binding confidential arbitration through JAMS in New York County, with a waiver of jury trial and of class actions. The terms contain no separate rule for EU or UK customers, and the DPA gives Teachable general and unrestricted permission to use sub-processors, with no notice of changes.
This page is for course creators, coaches and trainers who sell to the public, not for company training. Eleven European tools qualify. Every one of them has a lesson area, but they differ a lot: some are all-in-one funnel suites, some are course platforms with a branded app, and some are in French, German or Polish only.
- Your contract and your court are in New York Teachable, Inc. is a Delaware corporation with its address on Fifth Avenue in New York, and its terms are governed by New York law. Disputes go to binding confidential arbitration through JAMS, in New York County, and you waive jury trials and class actions. The terms have no EU or UK carve-out. The European tools below contract through an entity in the EU, Switzerland or, for Coachy, Bulgaria with German law.
- Sub-processors are the vendor's choice In Teachable's DPA you give it general and unrestricted permission to use sub-processors, and you waive notice when it adds or replaces one, provided they are chosen in good faith. The standard clauses for transfers are available on request. If you are the controller for your students' data, that is the part to read with your own privacy policy in front of you.
- Fees depend on your plan and your sales Teachable charges 7.5% transaction fees on the Starter plan and 0% from Builder up, plus card processing of 2.9% + 30 cents for US cards and 3.9% + 30 cents for international cards. Several European tools here take no commission at all, such as LearnyBox, Memberspot and Publigo, while others like Teachizy, Systeme.io and LearnWorlds attach conditions to their cheapest plans. Compare on the plan you would actually use.
- There is no free plan, and the European field has several Teachable offers a 7-day trial and no permanent free plan. Systeme.io, LearnyBox and Teachizy each describe a plan that costs nothing, with limits, and Memberspot, LearnWorlds, Mentortools, Coachy and ablefy give 14 to 30 days to try. That lowers the cost of testing a move, though the free tiers are small.
What you have to replace, not just match
List what your school does today: how many courses, how many students, how you take payment, whether you use coaching, community or mobile apps, and which language your students read. A single course for a few hundred people moves almost anywhere. A school with several products, subscriptions and an app narrows the choice to a few of these, and it is worth checking the product and member limits of the plan you would need.
Export what you can before you change anything: videos and files, student lists, and the payment history you need for your books. Keep your domain with a registrar you control, run the new school next to the old one, and email students before you switch, because lesson progress and logins rarely move across platforms.
The alternatives compared
| Position | Tool | Headquarters | Pricing | Jurisdiction |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| #1 | Systeme.io | Dublin, Ireland | eu-eea | |
| #4 | LearnWorlds | Limassol / Athens, Greece | From about $29 per month; higher tiers remove transaction fees | EU (Greece and Cyprus) |
How each alternative compares to Teachable
- Which law reaches it. eu-eea. Teachable, Inc. is incorporated in Delaware, United States, and run from New York, New York, United States, so the CLOUD Act obliges the provider to hand over data on a valid order regardless of which country the servers are in.
Best for: Creators who want courses, a funnel, email and a community in one account without paying first
Systeme.io is run by ITACWT Limited, 2 Cruise Park Rise, Tyrrelstown, Dublin 15. Its general conditions are governed by Irish law. They name no court.
Its homepage describes a free plan with no credit card that includes sales funnels, email marketing, online courses, a community builder and affiliate management, and says paid features include a website builder, booking calendars, SMS, CRM pipelines, webinars and white-label solutions.
The paid price table was not in the text we could read, so no figure is quoted. Check the plan with the course and student limits you need.
What Systeme.io does better than Teachable
- A free plan with no credit card, where Teachable has only a 7-day trial
- Funnels, email and affiliate tools in the same account as the courses
- Contracting entity in Ireland under Irish law
- One login for the school, the sales page and the mailing list
Where Systeme.io is a step down from Teachable
- Prices of the paid plans could not be verified from the page text
- The course player is plainer than a dedicated course platform
- No court is named in the terms
- Mobile apps for students were not confirmed on the pages we read
Standout against Teachable. A free plan covers courses, funnels, email and affiliates in a single account.
LearnyBox
public prices and a permanent free plan, in French
Best for: French-speaking creators who want courses, funnels, email and webinars with no commission
LearnyBox is SAS LearnyBox, 1025 rue Henri Becquerel, Bat 16, 34000 Montpellier. Its legal notice names Amazon Web Services, Inc. in Seattle as the host, without a region.
Its pricing page lists a Free plan at €0 excl. VAT (one course with 20 learners, one funnel, sales up to €1,000), Launch at €39 a month (€390 a year), Boost at €89 and Scale at €149, and states 0% commission on all plans.
The site and support are in French. We did not read the terms of sale, so the governing law is not stated here.
What LearnyBox does better than Teachable
- A permanent free plan, where Teachable has none
- 0% commission on every plan, where Teachable Starter takes 7.5%
- Funnels, email and webinars in the same product
- Company registered in Montpellier, France
Where LearnyBox is a step down from Teachable
- Mainly French; not an English-first tool
- The host named on the legal notice is a US company, without a region
- The free plan is small: one course and 20 learners
- Terms of sale and governing law were not verified
Standout against Teachable. A permanent free plan and 0% commission on every plan, with prices published.
Teachizy
a simple course platform with data in France
Best for: Course creators and trainers who want unlimited learners at a flat price and French hosting
Teachizy is operated by MAJ DIGITAL SAS, 19 avenue d'Italie, 75013 Paris, RCS Paris 844 925 834. Its pricing page states that data is hosted in France, through O2switch and Scaleway.
The plans are Decouverte (free, 3 courses, 70 learners, 9% commission on its sales), Pro at €49 a month or €490 a year with unlimited learners and instalment payments through Stripe, and Expert at €99 with an English interface, three team members, SCORM in beta and forums. It also states it is compatible with the French Qualiopi training quality label.
The terms of sale sit on a page we could not load, so the governing law is not stated here.
What Teachizy does better than Teachable
- Unlimited learners on a single €49 plan
- A free plan, where Teachable has none
- Data hosted in France by its own statement
- Qualiopi support for French training providers
Where Teachizy is a step down from Teachable
- French-first, with English only on the Expert plan
- 9% commission on its own sales on the free plan
- No Teachable-style mobile apps mentioned on the pricing page
- Terms of sale could not be loaded
Standout against Teachable. Unlimited learners at €49 a month with French hosting.
- Which law reaches it. EU (Greece and Cyprus). Teachable, Inc. is incorporated in Delaware, United States, and run from New York, New York, United States, so the CLOUD Act obliges the provider to hand over data on a valid order regardless of which country the servers are in.
- Where the data sits. EU.
- Source code. Closed source, as Teachable is.
- Independently checked. GDPR.
Best for: Creators who want a pure course platform with interactive video and a site builder
LearnWorlds is operated by LearnWorlds (CY) Ltd, Gladstonos 120, Limassol, company number HE380294. Its terms are governed by Cypriot law, and business customers go to the courts of Cyprus.
Its pricing page shows four plans (Starter, Pro Trainer, Learning Center and Corporate), a 30-day trial, and a fee per paid enrolment on the lowest plan only. The amounts appear in a currency that depends on where you are, so no figure is quoted here.
Our data file lists the company in Greece, while the contracting entity in the terms is in Cyprus; the entity in the terms is the one that counts.
What LearnWorlds does better than Teachable
- Contracting entity in Cyprus, an EU member state, under Cypriot law
- 30-day trial, where Teachable has 7 days
- Interactive video and a built-in site builder
- No enrolment fee on the higher plans
Where LearnWorlds is a step down from Teachable
- Prices change with your location, so they could not be verified
- A fee per paid enrolment on the lowest plan
- Business disputes go to the courts of Cyprus
- No permanent free plan
Standout against Teachable. A pure course platform with interactive video and a 30-day trial.
Memberspot
no transaction fee and a German contract
Best for: Coaches and course creators in the DACH area who want a branded school at a flat fee
Memberspot GmbH sits at Rilkestr. 26, 71642 Ludwigsburg (HRB 774709, Amtsgericht Stuttgart). Paragraph 19 of the terms applies German law, excluding the UN sales convention.
The pricing page lists Starter at €49 a month (€39 on annual billing, 1 course, 100 members), Grow at €119 (€99, 2,500 members) and Scale at €249 (€199, 10,000 members), plus an Enterprise tier from €500. It states a 14-day trial without a credit card and a 0% transaction fee on all tiers.
Members and add-ons cost extra when you grow, for example 4K video at €99 a month.
What Memberspot does better than Teachable
- 0% transaction fee on every tier, where Teachable Starter takes 7.5%
- German company with German law and a register entry
- Prices published in euros with a 14-day trial without a card
- Unlimited video uploads on all plans
Where Memberspot is a step down from Teachable
- Starter allows only 1 course and 100 members
- No permanent free plan
- Add-ons such as 4K video and extra members add up
- Place of jurisdiction depends on the customer's own status
Standout against Teachable. Zero transaction fees on every tier, with prices in euros on the page.
Mentortools
courses, community and an own app, from Switzerland
Best for: Creators who want a white-label academy with community and an app in one package
Mentortools AG is registered at Hagenbuchstrasse 25, CH-9000 St. Gallen (UID CHE-282.647.373). Switzerland is outside the EU but has an EU adequacy decision, and the contracting entity is Swiss.
Its site describes a course editor with white-label branding, community features, AI content tools, gamification, quizzes, certificates, a landing page builder and an iOS and Android app. It says academy data is hosted on infrastructure in Frankfurt and describes a fixed monthly price with unlimited courses and members, and a free trial.
Prices were not in the page text we read, and its terms were not opened, so neither the price nor the governing law is stated here.
What Mentortools does better than Teachable
- Swiss contracting entity with a register entry, and hosting stated as Frankfurt
- Community, own app and gamification in the same product
- Unlimited courses and members at a fixed monthly price, by its own description
- White-label branding included
Where Mentortools is a step down from Teachable
- Prices could not be verified
- Governing law and court were not checked
- Switzerland is not an EU member state
- Smaller track record than Teachable
Standout against Teachable. Course platform, community and own app in a single fixed-price package, hosted in Frankfurt.
Coachy
a branded app and tests, with German law
Best for: Coaches and trainers who want an own app, certificates and a 30-day trial
Coachy is run by Coachy OOD, 104 Simeonovsko shose Blvd, 1700 Sofia, Bulgaria (VAT BG207085076). The terms apply German law, with the company's seat as the exclusive place of jurisdiction, and say that for paid services the contract partner is Digistore24.
Its pricing page lists Premium (1 course, own app, AI lessons), Deluxe (3 courses, tests, certificates, landing pages) and Enterprise (unlimited courses) at between €35 and €234 a month excl. VAT depending on the plan and billing period, with a 30-day trial without a card.
Payments run through Digistore24 or CopeCart, and a custom domain costs €25 once. We found no hosting location on the pages we read.
What Coachy does better than Teachable
- Own app for iOS and Android even on the lowest plan
- 30-day trial without a credit card, where Teachable has 7 days
- Tests and certificates from Deluxe
- EU company with German law in the terms
Where Coachy is a step down from Teachable
- Payment depends on Digistore24 or CopeCart, not an own checkout
- Premium allows only 1 course
- Hosting location was not found
- Seat in Bulgaria while the law is German, which may confuse a dispute
Standout against Teachable. A branded app, tests and certificates, with a 30-day trial.
ablefy
checkout and invoicing first, courses on top
Best for: Sellers who want payments, tax handling and affiliates with courses and communities added
ablefy GmbH is registered in Berlin (Amtsgericht Charlottenburg, HRB 151956 B, from the North Data register overview). Its own imprint and terms pages did not render in our reading, so the entity could not be checked on its own site.
Its pricing page lists a Sell plan at €27 a month and a Create & Sell plan from €59 (up to 150 members) to €397 or more (unlimited), with 2.7% + €0.50 per payment, extra fees for buy-now-pay-later and 0.4% for invoicing and tax processing, a 14-day trial, and affiliate programs up to five levels.
Its centre of gravity is selling and paying, not teaching, so the lesson tools are lighter than on a dedicated course platform.
What ablefy does better than Teachable
- Checkout, invoicing and tax handling are part of the product
- Affiliate programs with up to five levels
- Courses, memberships and communities on the Create & Sell plan
- German company with a register entry
Where ablefy is a step down from Teachable
- Per-payment fees of 2.7% + €0.50 on top of the plan
- Imprint and terms pages did not load, so the entity is unverified on its own site
- The course tools are lighter than on LearnWorlds or Memberspot
- Member-based pricing rises quickly
Standout against Teachable. A checkout with invoicing, tax and affiliate tools, with courses on the higher plan.
Publigo
no commission, for Polish-speaking creators
Best for: Polish course sellers who want a flat price or a one-off licence
Publigo is a Polish product and its site is in Polish only. We did not verify the operating company on the pages read for this page, so no entity is named here.
The subscription plans are START at 87 zl, PLUS at 157 zl and PRO at 247 zl a month net of VAT, and the BOX licence is a one-off payment from 1,226.31 zl. The site states "no commission", a 15-day trial and a 30-day money-back guarantee.
Unlimited products and customers, several payment gateways and video hosting are listed on all tiers.
What Publigo does better than Teachable
- No commission, where Teachable Starter takes 7.5%
- A one-off licence option as well as a monthly plan
- Prices published in zloty on the page
- Polish-language product and support
Where Publigo is a step down from Teachable
- No English version at all
- No free plan
- Smaller international ecosystem
- The operating entity could not be verified on 8 October
Standout against Teachable. A monthly plan or a one-off licence, with no commission, in Polish.
FunnelCockpit
a funnel suite with member areas, not a course platform
Best for: Marketers who sell through funnels and need a member area for the delivery
FunnelCockpit's imprint names a partnership of Denis Hoeger Caballero, Just Viral GmbH & Co. KG (Hamburg, HRB 138201) and Marius Glauer. Its terms name no governing law that we could read.
Its pricing page lists Lite at €47, Standard at €97 and Business at €297 a month, each with a 14-day trial for €1, 500 to 2,500 AI credits, and one, three or unlimited member areas.
It is built around funnels, pages and email, so the lesson tools are lighter than on a course platform.
What FunnelCockpit does better than Teachable
- Funnels, pages, CRM and email in the same account
- A 14-day trial for €1 that lets you test the full tool
- German providers with a register entry for the GmbH & Co. KG
- AI page builder
Where FunnelCockpit is a step down from Teachable
- Lesson tools are lighter than a dedicated course platform
- The provider is a partnership of individuals and a company, not a single entity
- No governing law that we could read
- No free plan
Standout against Teachable. A funnel and email suite with member areas and a trial for €1.
LearningSuite
an Austrian academy platform you can only see by demo
Best for: Coaches and agencies who want a branded academy with an app and servers in Frankfurt
LearningSuite FlexCo is registered at Alte Poststrasse 156, 8020 Graz (FN 556105 b, VAT ATU 769 60 549). The homepage states "Server in Frankfurt & DSGVO konform".
It describes a drag-and-drop course editor, built-in video tools, a community, native iOS and Android apps and an AI assistant, and says more than 2,000 companies use it.
There is no trial and there are no prices: you can see the tool only in a demo call. The site is in German.
What LearningSuite does better than Teachable
- Austrian company with a register entry
- Servers in Frankfurt by its own statement
- Native apps, community and an AI assistant
- Onboarding service with the demo
Where LearningSuite is a step down from Teachable
- No public prices and no trial, only a demo call
- Mainly German
- Governing law and court were not checked
- Harder to compare before you talk to sales
Standout against Teachable. A branded academy with apps and Frankfurt servers, sold through a demo call.
What actually breaks when you switch
The hard part of leaving Teachable is the learner side, not the content. Videos and files can be downloaded, but student accounts, progress and certificates do not transfer. Tell students ahead of time and keep the old school open in read-only mode for a while.
Check what happens to payments. Subscriptions and payment plans tied to Teachable's own checkout cannot be moved, so students may have to subscribe again, and tools that route payments through Digistore24 or CopeCart add a second contract party.
Mind the language. LearnyBox and Teachizy are French-first, LearningSuite and FunnelCockpit German-first, and Publigo Polish only. Check the checkout and student pages in your students' language, not only your own dashboard.
Read the plan limits, not the headline price. Memberspot Starter allows 1 course and 100 members, LearnyBox's free plan 20 learners, and Coachy Premium one course.
Is there a European tool that works like Teachable?
LearnWorlds is closest in shape: a course platform with a site builder, interactive video, quizzes and a mobile app option, from a Cypriot company with a 30-day trial. Memberspot and Mentortools are similar course-and-community platforms with their own app, and Teachizy and LearnyBox cover courses with lower entry prices.
None replicates every Teachable feature. If you rely on Teachable's affiliate program, global payment handling or a specific integration, check the equivalent before you move.
Which of these has a permanent free plan?
Systeme.io, LearnyBox and Teachizy describe a free plan on their own sites. LearnyBox limits it to one course with 20 learners and sales of up to €1,000, and Teachizy to three courses, 70 learners and a 9% commission on its own sales.
Memberspot offers 14 days without a card, LearnWorlds 30 days, Coachy 30 days without a card, ablefy 14 days, Publigo 15 days and FunnelCockpit 14 days for €1. Mentortools describes a free trial, and LearningSuite only a demo call.
Which of these charge no commission?
LearnyBox states 0% commission on all plans, Memberspot 0% transaction fee on all tiers, and Publigo "no commission". LearnWorlds charges a fee per paid enrolment on its lowest plan and none above it, and Teachizy takes 9% on its free plan only.
Payment processors still charge their own fees. Coachy takes payment through Digistore24 or CopeCart, and ablefy charges 2.7% + €0.50 per payment on its own checkout.
Do these work in English?
Systeme.io, LearnWorlds, Memberspot, Mentortools, Coachy and ablefy publish English pages. Teachizy has an English interface on its Expert plan. LearnyBox, LearningSuite and FunnelCockpit are mainly French or German, and Publigo is Polish only.
If your students read English, the first six are the safer start. If they read French, German or Polish, the local tool can be a better fit than an English-first one.
Which one to pick
If you want the broadest start for the least money, Systeme.io has a free plan with courses, funnels, email and affiliates. LearnWorlds is the nearest in shape to Teachable as a pure course platform, and Memberspot is the one to check if you want no transaction fee and a German contract.
If your students speak French, LearnyBox and Teachizy publish their prices and have a permanent free plan. For an own app and community, look at Mentortools, Coachy and LearningSuite, and be ready for demos and missing prices on two of them.
ablefy, Publigo and FunnelCockpit are narrower: a checkout-first platform with courses on top, a Polish-only school with no commission, and a funnel suite with member areas.
Be realistic about the gap. Teachable has a long record, an own payment handling and a wide creator ecosystem, and none of these imports a Teachable school. Switch if you want a European contracting party, a court and law close to home, and a clearer view of sub-processors, and stay if your students are already used to Teachable and your sales depend on its tools.
Frequently Asked Questions
There is no single best one without a criterion. Systeme.io is the broadest for the money, with a free plan that covers courses, funnels and email. LearnWorlds is the closest as a course platform, and Memberspot is the one to look at if you want no transaction fee and a German contract. Pick by language, by whether you need an app, and by what you sell.
No. Teachable, Inc. is a Delaware corporation with its address in New York, and its DPA says it is part of Hotmart Company. Its terms are governed by New York law and send disputes to JAMS arbitration in New York County.
No. Its pricing page shows paid plans only (Starter, Builder, Growth and Custom), with a 7-day free trial and a 30-day guarantee. Systeme.io, LearnyBox and Teachizy offer a free plan with limits.
The entry plans on their own pricing pages are Teachizy Pro at €49 a month, Memberspot Starter at €49 (€39 on annual billing), LearnyBox Launch at €39, Coachy Premium from €35 and ablefy at €27 plus 2.7% + €0.50 per payment. Systeme.io, LearnyBox and Teachizy have free plans. The cheapest plan is rarely the one a growing school ends up on.
Not automatically. Videos, files and text can be downloaded and uploaded again, but lesson structure, student progress and logins do not transfer between platforms. Plan for a few days of rebuilding and tell your students before you switch.
Mentortools, Memberspot, Coachy and LearningSuite describe an own or branded app for iOS and Android on their sites, and LearnWorlds offers a mobile app option. Teachable has mobile apps from its Starter plan. Check whether the app is included in the plan you want.
It differs. Teachizy states its data is hosted in France (O2switch and Scaleway), Mentortools and LearningSuite say Frankfurt, and LearnyBox names Amazon Web Services, Inc. as its host without naming a region on the page we read. For Teachable, the DPA does not name a storage location. Read each vendor's sub-processor list before you decide.
Their contracting entities sit in the EU, Switzerland or, for Coachy, Bulgaria, so EU data protection law applies to them directly. That is a different thing from a certificate of compliance. Sign a data processing agreement with whichever you choose and check its sub-processors.
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