European CDN Alternatives

Looking for a GDPR-compliant alternative to Cloudflare or AWS CloudFront? European CDN providers offer fast global content delivery with data sovereignty, transparent pricing, and full compliance with European data protection regulations.

How we rank these tools — 4-step process
  1. 1
    European ownership, verified

    The company is headquartered and incorporated in the EU, EEA or Switzerland, and processes customer data in Europe. A US parent company disqualifies a tool from this page regardless of where its servers are.

  2. 2
    Category fit and hands-on review

    What the tool actually does, who it suits, and where it falls short — checked against the vendor’s own documentation, changelog and pricing page rather than its marketing copy.

  3. 3
    Compliance and pricing check

    GDPR posture, hosting location and the prices quoted on this page are verified against the vendor’s public pricing before publication, and re-checked when we revisit the category.

  4. 4
    Position on this page

    Placement on this page can be paid, and that can affect the order tools appear in. It never buys a listing: a tool that fails the checks above is not here at any price, and payment does not change the shortcomings we write about. A vendor can ask us to correct a factual error — not to remove a criticism.

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7 European CDN Providers

Bunny.net

Lightning-fast global CDN with simple pricing

#1 of 7 in this category
Slovenia Pay-as-you-go
Global CDN DDoS protection GDPR compliant

Gcore

Global edge network and CDN platform

#2 of 7 in this category
Luxembourg From free tier
Edge cloud DDoS protection Global network

KeyCDN

High-performance content delivery network

#3 of 7 in this category
Switzerland Pay-as-you-go
HTTP/2 support Real-time analytics Swiss privacy

CDN77

High-performance CDN with global coverage

#4 of 7 in this category
Czech Republic Pay-as-you-go
Video streaming Live streaming GDPR compliant

Leaseweb CDN

Enterprise-grade content delivery network

#5 of 7 in this category
Netherlands Custom pricing
Global network 24/7 support Enterprise focus

Link11

German cloud security provider with AI-based DDoS protection

#6 of 7 in this category
Germany Enterprise pricing / Contact for quote
AI-based DDoS protectionWeb Application FirewallBot management

Myra Security

German DDoS protection and CDN service - a GDPR-compliant alternative to Cloudflare

#7 of 7 in this category
Germany Enterprise pricing / Contact for quote
DDoS protectionWeb Application FirewallCDN

Key takeaways

  • Bunny.net ranks #1 among the European CDNs in this directory, because Bunny.net charges from about €0.01 per GB with no minimum commitment, and adds edge storage, video streaming and DNS to the same account.
  • Pricing model is the decisive difference here: pay-as-you-go per gigabyte with no commitment (Bunny.net, KeyCDN) against a monthly minimum (CDN77 from about €199), which for a small site is a hundredfold gap.
  • Gcore runs the largest network here at 180+ points of presence, with edge computing and cloud VMs alongside delivery, and is built for the latency demands of gaming and live streaming.
  • A CDN sees every request your visitors make — which page, from which address, at what time — so the operator's jurisdiction is a genuine privacy question rather than a technical footnote.
  • LeaseWeb bundles CDN with dedicated servers, cloud hosting and colocation, which suits an organisation that wants one European provider for infrastructure and delivery rather than two.

A European CDN is a content delivery network operated by a company established in Europe that caches your files on servers close to your visitors, so pages load faster — and, because the operator is European, the request logs recording who visited what stay under European jurisdiction rather than a US one.

European CDN compared

European CDN tools compared on position, country, entry price and best use
PositionToolEstablishedEntry priceBest for
#1 Bunny.net Slovenia Pay-as-you-go from about €0.01/GB Developers and businesses wanting fast, genuinely cheap delivery
#2 Gcore Luxembourg Free tier / paid from about €25/month Gaming, streaming and businesses needing low-latency global delivery
#3 KeyCDN Switzerland Pay-as-you-go from about €0.04/GB Websites wanting fast, privacy-respecting delivery with instant purge
#4 CDN77 Czech Republic From about €199/month, or pay-as-you-go Media companies and streaming platforms with real volume
#5 LeaseWeb CDN Netherlands Custom pricing by bandwidth and requirements Businesses wanting European hosting and delivery from one provider
#6 Link11 Germany Enterprise pricing on request Enterprises whose CDN also has to survive a serious attack
#7 Myra Security Germany Enterprise pricing on request Public bodies and critical infrastructure that must prove their delivery layer

Every European CDN tool reviewed

#1 Bunny.net

Ljubljana, Slovenia Founded 2014 Pay-as-you-go from about €0.01/GB Free trial credit

Best for: Developers and businesses wanting fast, genuinely cheap delivery

Bunny.net charges about €0.01 per gigabyte with no minimum and no commitment, which makes the cost of putting a CDN in front of a small site effectively negligible. A site serving 50GB a month pays a few euros; a quiet month costs nothing. That pricing philosophy is what separates it from providers whose monthly floor exceeds most sites' annual delivery spend.

The breadth is the second reason it leads here. Alongside the CDN across 110+ points of presence with a strong European presence, Bunny.net offers edge storage so origin files live on the same network, Bunny Stream for video hosting and delivery, DNS, image optimisation and DDoS protection — all on one account and one bill. For a small team that would otherwise assemble a CDN, an object store, a video host and a DNS provider from four vendors, that consolidation matters more than a fractional price difference.

Bunny CDN d.o.o. operates from Ljubljana under EU jurisdiction, so the request logs — a complete record of who loaded what and when — stay under European law rather than being reachable under the US CLOUD Act. The limits are scale-related: Bunny.net does not offer the enterprise contracts, edge computing or dedicated support that Gcore and LeaseWeb do, and very large media operations will negotiate better rates elsewhere.

What Bunny.net does well

  • From about €0.01/GB with no minimum or commitment
  • Edge storage, video streaming, DNS and image optimisation on one account
  • 110+ points of presence with a strong European footprint
  • DDoS protection included
  • Slovenian company, EU jurisdiction for request logs

Where Bunny.net falls short

  • No edge computing, unlike Gcore
  • Less suited to enterprise contracts and dedicated support
  • Very large media operations will negotiate better elsewhere
  • Not open source

Standout feature. Four products on one bill at €0.01/GB: Bunny.net is the only provider here where a small site gets CDN, storage, video and DNS for the price of a coffee.

#2 Gcore

Luxembourg Founded 2014 Free tier / paid from about €25/month Free tier

Best for: Gaming, streaming and businesses needing low-latency global delivery

Gcore runs the largest network in this category at 180+ points of presence, and the reason that matters is latency rather than coverage bragging. For gaming and live streaming, a hundred milliseconds is the difference between playable and unplayable, and reaching that consistently requires a node genuinely close to the player — which is what a dense network buys and a small one cannot.

Gcore is also more than delivery. Edge computing runs logic at the node rather than round-tripping to an origin, cloud VMs provide compute, and DNS hosting, load balancing and DDoS protection complete a platform rather than a caching layer. For a gaming or streaming company, having the compute and the delivery from one provider removes a category of coordination.

Gcore S.A. is based in Luxembourg with multiple EU locations, so it is EU-established and the request logs stay under European jurisdiction. There is a free tier with paid plans from about €25 per month, which makes it accessible for evaluation despite the enterprise positioning. The trade-off against Bunny.net is cost at small scale: €25 a month is more than a small site's entire delivery bill on pay-as-you-go pricing.

What Gcore does well

  • 180+ points of presence, the largest network here
  • Edge computing and cloud VMs alongside delivery
  • Built for gaming and streaming latency
  • DNS hosting, load balancing and DDoS protection included
  • Luxembourg company, EU jurisdiction, free tier available

Where Gcore falls short

  • From about €25/month, more than a small site needs
  • Broader platform means more to configure
  • Not open source
  • Overkill for a business website or blog

Standout feature. Edge computing on the largest European network: Gcore is the only provider here that can run your logic at the node rather than sending the request home.

#3 KeyCDN

Winterthur, Switzerland Founded 2012 Pay-as-you-go from about €0.04/GB Free trial

Best for: Websites wanting fast, privacy-respecting delivery with instant purge

KeyCDN concentrates on the delivery details that actually change how a site behaves. Instant purge means a corrected page propagates immediately rather than waiting out a TTL, which removes the single most common CDN frustration — fixing something and watching the old version keep serving. Real-time analytics show what is happening now rather than in a report generated overnight, automatic WebP conversion cuts image weight without touching your build, and HTTP/2 and free SSL come as standard.

proinity LLC operates KeyCDN from Winterthur under the Swiss Federal Data Protection Act, which places request logs outside both the EU and US reach under an adequacy decision. That is a genuine privacy position, though it is adequacy rather than intra-EEA processing, which matters for procurement rules that distinguish the two.

Pricing is pay-as-you-go from about €0.04 per gigabyte with no minimum commitment — four times Bunny.net's rate and still trivially cheap for most sites, with no floor to clear. The network is the smallest here at 47+ points of presence, which is sufficient for European and North American delivery and thinner elsewhere; for a globally distributed audience, Gcore or Bunny.net cover more ground.

What KeyCDN does well

  • Instant purge, so corrections propagate immediately
  • Real-time analytics rather than delayed reports
  • Automatic WebP conversion, HTTP/2 and free SSL
  • Pay-as-you-go with no minimum commitment
  • Swiss jurisdiction under the Federal Data Protection Act

Where KeyCDN falls short

  • 47+ points of presence, the smallest network here
  • Four times Bunny.net's per-GB rate
  • Thinner coverage outside Europe and North America
  • Swiss adequacy rather than intra-EEA processing

Standout feature. Instant purge: KeyCDN removes the hour every team loses to a corrected page that keeps serving the old version.

#4 CDN77

Prague, Czech Republic Founded 2011 From about €199/month, or pay-as-you-go 14-day free trial

Best for: Media companies and streaming platforms with real volume

CDN77 is built for video at scale, and the pricing states the audience plainly: from about €199 per month, or pay-as-you-go. For a media company or streaming platform pushing hundreds of terabytes, that floor is trivial and the negotiated rate is what matters; for a business website it is a hundred times more than the delivery is worth.

What the money buys is video streaming specialisation — the delivery characteristics that matter for adaptive bitrate video rather than for static assets — across 85+ points of presence with strong EU coverage, plus DDoS protection, SSL certificates, API access and real-time analytics that let an operations team see a problem while it is happening rather than afterwards.

CDN77 is operated by DataCamp s.r.o. from Prague under EU jurisdiction, so request logs stay under European law. A 14-day free trial allows genuine evaluation before committing, which matters given the price floor. The clear limitation is fit rather than quality: CDN77 is a strong product aimed at a specific size of customer, and a smaller site should be looking at Bunny.net or KeyCDN instead.

What CDN77 does well

  • Specialised in video streaming delivery
  • 85+ points of presence with strong EU coverage
  • Real-time analytics for live operational visibility
  • DDoS protection, SSL and API access included
  • Czech company, EU jurisdiction, 14-day free trial

Where CDN77 falls short

  • From about €199/month — far too high for a small site
  • Aimed at media companies rather than general websites
  • Fewer additional services than Bunny.net or Gcore
  • Not open source

Standout feature. Built for video volume: CDN77 is aimed squarely at the streaming operator, which is why its floor price and its delivery characteristics both assume terabytes.

#5 LeaseWeb CDN

Amsterdam, Netherlands Founded 1997 Custom pricing by bandwidth and requirements Contact for trial

Best for: Businesses wanting European hosting and delivery from one provider

LeaseWeb sells CDN as part of an infrastructure relationship rather than as a standalone service, and for some organisations that is exactly right. Dedicated servers, cloud hosting, colocation, private networking and DDoS protection come from the same provider as the delivery layer — so the origin and the edge are one contract, one support relationship and one invoice, which for a company running physical or dedicated infrastructure removes a coordination boundary that causes real problems during incidents.

LeaseWeb Global B.V. operates from Amsterdam with multiple EU data centre locations including the Netherlands, Germany and the UK, and has been doing so since 1997 — which for infrastructure is a genuine purchasing criterion rather than trivia. EU establishment means request logs stay under European jurisdiction.

Pricing is custom by bandwidth and requirements, which is the enterprise model: no published rate, a sales conversation, and terms that reflect volume. That makes LeaseWeb wrong for a small site wanting to add a CDN this afternoon and right for an organisation already buying dedicated infrastructure that wants delivery on the same terms. The CDN itself is solid rather than distinguished; the integration is what you are buying.

What LeaseWeb CDN does well

  • CDN integrated with dedicated servers, cloud hosting and colocation
  • Multiple EU data centre locations
  • One contract and one support relationship for origin and edge
  • Operating since 1997, Dutch company, EU jurisdiction
  • Private networking and DDoS protection included

Where LeaseWeb CDN falls short

  • Custom pricing with a sales process rather than published rates
  • Wrong choice for a small site adding a CDN quickly
  • CDN features less distinguished than the specialists
  • Fewer points of presence than Gcore or Bunny.net

Standout feature. One provider for origin and edge: LeaseWeb is the only option here where the servers your site runs on and the network delivering it come from the same contract.

#6 Link11

Frankfurt, Germany Enterprise pricing on request Contact sales

Best for: Enterprises whose CDN also has to survive a serious attack

Link11 belongs in a CDN category because delivery and protection are the same layer, and for some organisations the protection is the reason the layer exists. Its secure CDN carries content the way any CDN does, with AI-driven DDoS mitigation underneath that blocks attacks without a human deciding to act.

That automation is the part worth understanding. Volumetric attacks arrive and escalate faster than an on-call engineer can assess them — by the time someone has confirmed the alert is real, the outage has already happened. Zero-touch mitigation removes the human from the critical path, which is what makes the difference between an incident and a graph nobody had to look at.

Link11 GmbH is BSI qualified and based in Frankfurt with German hosting, which places it in the procurement bracket for critical infrastructure — and matters because a CDN terminates TLS and therefore decrypts every request your visitors make. Pricing is enterprise and quoted on request. For a site whose traffic is ordinary and whose downtime costs a bad afternoon, Bunny.net at €0.01 per GB delivers the same bytes for a fraction of the price.

What Link11 does well

  • Secure CDN with AI-driven DDoS mitigation built in
  • Zero-touch mitigation, faster than human response
  • BSI qualified, German hosting and jurisdiction
  • WAF and bot management alongside delivery
  • Built for organisations where outage is a serious event

Where Link11 falls short

  • Enterprise pricing on request, no self-serve entry
  • Far more expensive than the pay-as-you-go CDNs here
  • Fewer points of presence than the large networks
  • Overkill where downtime is an inconvenience

Standout feature. Mitigation happens before anyone reads the alert — which is the only speed a volumetric attack respects.

#7 Myra Security

Munich, Germany Enterprise pricing on request Contact sales

Best for: Public bodies and critical infrastructure that must prove their delivery layer

Myra Security sells a CDN as part of a protection platform rather than the other way round, and its BSI certification is what separates it from everything cheaper in this category. Assessment by the German federal office for information security is an audited judgement, and it is what allows a provider to be used by operators of critical infrastructure — energy, water, healthcare, finance, government.

The delivery side works as a CDN should, and around it sit DDoS protection across network and application layers, a web application firewall, DNS security, bot management and SSL/TLS handling. For the buyer this matters as one accountable layer rather than a CDN plus three vendors that each see the same decrypted traffic.

Myra Security GmbH operates from Munich with German hosting, which is doing real work here: this layer decrypts every request — form submissions, credentials in transit, the behaviour of every visitor — so where it is processed and under whose law is a substantive question for a public body. Pricing is enterprise and quoted, with a sales cycle before you can evaluate cost. It is the wrong spend for a marketing site, and its network is smaller than the large delivery-first CDNs.

What Myra Security does well

  • BSI certified for German critical infrastructure
  • CDN, DDoS protection, WAF and bot management as one layer
  • German hosting and jurisdiction throughout
  • One accountable vendor rather than four seeing your traffic
  • Built for organisations that must document their supply chain

Where Myra Security falls short

  • Enterprise pricing on request, no self-serve entry
  • Smaller network than the delivery-first CDNs
  • Substantial overspend for an ordinary marketing site
  • Sales cycle before evaluation

Standout feature. BSI certification — the audited assessment that decides whether a German public body may use you at all.

Pay-as-you-go or a monthly minimum — which suits your traffic?

This is the largest cost difference in the category and it is decided before any feature comparison.

Bunny.net charges from about €0.01 per gigabyte with no commitment and no minimum, and KeyCDN from about €0.04 per gigabyte on the same basis. A small site serving 50GB a month pays a few euros, and a month with no traffic costs nothing.

CDN77 starts from about €199 per month, or pay-as-you-go, and is built for media companies and streaming platforms where that floor is trivial against the volume. LeaseWeb quotes custom pricing by bandwidth and requirements, which is the enterprise model.

The arithmetic is stark rather than nuanced: for a business site or a blog, Bunny.net costs roughly what a coffee costs and CDN77 costs a hundred times more for the same delivery. For a video platform pushing hundreds of terabytes, the relationship inverts and the negotiated rate matters more than the list price.

Work out your actual monthly egress before comparing anything else, because it determines which half of this category you are shopping in.

Why does a CDN operator's jurisdiction matter?

Because a CDN sits in front of everything and sees every request. Which page a visitor loaded, from which IP address, with which browser, at what time — that is a complete access log of your site's traffic, held by a third party.

With a US-established provider, that log is reachable under the US CLOUD Act regardless of which edge server handled the request. With Bunny.net in Slovenia, Gcore in Luxembourg, CDN77 in Czechia or LeaseWeb in the Netherlands, it is not — the operator is EU-established and the processing is intra-EEA.

KeyCDN is Swiss, operating under the Swiss Federal Data Protection Act and an adequacy decision, which is outside the EU and outside US reach but not intra-EEA processing.

For most sites this is a modest consideration. For a site whose visitors would be compromised by their reading being known — a health resource, a legal advice service, a journalism outlet — the CDN log is the most complete record of that anywhere, and where it lives is the whole question.

How many points of presence do you actually need?

Fewer than the marketing implies, and the right ones matter more than the count.

Gcore runs 180+ points of presence and Bunny.net 110+, CDN77 85+ and KeyCDN 47+. Those numbers describe global coverage, but what determines your visitors' experience is whether there is a node near the places they actually are.

For a European business serving European customers, a network with excellent European coverage beats one with more nodes spread worldwide. Bunny.net has a strong European presence, CDN77 strong EU coverage, and LeaseWeb operates from multiple EU locations including the Netherlands, Germany and the UK.

Where the count genuinely matters is latency-sensitive global delivery — gaming and live streaming, where a hundred milliseconds is the difference between playable and not. Gcore is built for exactly that, with the largest network here and edge computing to run logic at the node rather than round-tripping to an origin.

The practical test is to check node locations against your actual analytics rather than counting them.

What else should a CDN do besides caching?

The useful extras are the ones that remove another vendor rather than adding a line item.

Bunny.net is the broadest here for a small team: edge storage so origin files live on the same network, Bunny Stream for video hosting and delivery, DNS, image optimisation and DDoS protection — all on one account and one bill. For a business that would otherwise buy a CDN, an object store, a video host and a DNS provider separately, that consolidation is worth more than a fractional price difference.

KeyCDN focuses on the delivery details that actually affect performance: real-time analytics rather than delayed reports, instant purge so a corrected page propagates immediately rather than after a TTL, automatic WebP conversion, HTTP/2 and free SSL.

Gcore extends furthest in the other direction with edge computing, cloud VMs, DNS hosting and load balancing, making it a platform rather than a delivery layer.

CDN77 specialises in video streaming with real-time analytics, and LeaseWeb integrates CDN with dedicated servers, cloud hosting and colocation for organisations wanting one infrastructure provider.

What breaks when you put a CDN in front of a site?

Cache invalidation, and it breaks in the same way every time. You fix a page, the CDN keeps serving the old version, and someone spends an hour convinced the deployment failed.

The mitigation is a purge mechanism you can actually reach from your deployment process. KeyCDN offers instant purge with cache control, and every provider here has an API — wiring purge into your deploy rather than doing it by hand in a dashboard is what stops this recurring.

The second failure is caching what should not be cached. A logged-in page served from cache to the wrong visitor is a data breach, not a bug, and it happens when cache rules are written by URL pattern without accounting for cookies or authorisation headers. Test authenticated routes explicitly before going live.

The third is assuming the CDN fixes a slow origin. A CDN accelerates static assets; a page that takes three seconds to generate still takes three seconds for the first visitor at each node. Fix the origin first, then cache it.

How we selected and ranked these 7 tools

Every tool on this page is in the European Purpose directory, which means the operating company is established in Europe and we have verified that from the company register or the vendor's own legal notice rather than from a marketing page. Tools headquartered outside Europe are not eligible, however good they are.

  1. Feature verification (weight: 40%). We check each capability against the vendor's own documentation and product pages, and record what the tool does rather than what the category is assumed to include.
  2. Ease of adoption (weight: 30%). Integrations, published API access, trial availability and how much configuration stands between signing and a usable result.
  3. Value and transparency (weight: 30%). Published pricing counts in a vendor's favour; quote-only pricing is recorded as quote-only rather than estimated. We weigh what a buyer gets for the entry price, not the headline feature count.
  4. Editorial review. Three people touch every page: one writes it, a second edits it, and a third checks the compliance and pricing claims against the vendor's documentation. The three weights above decide the order; a position is a ranking against the other European tools in this category, not an absolute score.

Vendor-reported outcomes — ROI figures, margin uplift, time saved — are labelled as vendor claims wherever they appear on this page. We have not audited them, and neither has anyone else who quotes them. Read our full editorial process for how pages are re-verified.

Frequently asked questions

Bunny.net holds #1 among the European CDNs in this directory, because it combines pay-as-you-go pricing from about €0.01 per GB with no minimum commitment, a network of 110+ points of presence, and edge storage, video streaming and DNS on the same account. The right answer depends on scale: Gcore for the largest network and edge computing, KeyCDN for Swiss privacy and instant purge, CDN77 for high-volume video streaming, and LeaseWeb when you want CDN and hosting from one provider.

Bunny.net at about €0.01 per GB with no minimum commitment — a small site serving 50GB a month pays a few euros, and a quiet month costs nothing. KeyCDN is also pay-as-you-go from about €0.04 per GB. Gcore has a free tier with paid plans from about €25 per month. CDN77 starts around €199 per month, aimed at media companies where that floor is trivial. LeaseWeb quotes custom enterprise pricing.

Yes, and more than people expect, because a CDN sits in front of everything and logs every request — which page, from which IP, with which browser, at what time. That is a complete access log of your site's traffic held by a third party. With Bunny.net in Slovenia, Gcore in Luxembourg, CDN77 in Czechia or LeaseWeb in the Netherlands, that log is under EU jurisdiction rather than reachable under the US CLOUD Act. KeyCDN is Swiss, under an adequacy decision.

Gcore with 180+ globally, followed by Bunny.net at 110+, CDN77 at 85+ and KeyCDN at 47+. But the count matters less than where the nodes are: for a European business serving European visitors, strong European coverage beats a larger global spread. Check node locations against your own analytics rather than counting. Where the number genuinely matters is latency-sensitive global delivery like gaming and live streaming, which is exactly what Gcore is built for.

CDN77 specialises in it, with 85+ points of presence, real-time analytics and a focus on media companies and streaming platforms, from about €199 per month or pay-as-you-go. Bunny.net offers Bunny Stream for video hosting and delivery on the same account as its CDN at pay-as-you-go rates, which is far cheaper for smaller volumes. Gcore is built for gaming and streaming latency with the largest network here.

LeaseWeb is the one built for it, offering CDN alongside dedicated servers, cloud hosting, colocation, DDoS protection and private networking from multiple EU locations including the Netherlands, Germany and the UK. For an organisation that wants one European provider and one contract for infrastructure and delivery rather than two, that consolidation is the point. Gcore also combines CDN with cloud VMs and edge computing. Pricing for both is quoted rather than published.

The useful extras remove another vendor. Bunny.net adds edge storage, video streaming, DNS, image optimisation and DDoS protection on one account, which replaces a CDN, an object store, a video host and a DNS provider with a single bill. KeyCDN adds instant purge, real-time analytics, automatic WebP conversion, HTTP/2 and free SSL. Gcore adds edge computing and cloud VMs. All of them include DDoS protection, which for a small site is often the real reason to add a CDN.

Cache invalidation, every time: you fix a page, the CDN serves the old version, and someone loses an hour thinking the deployment failed. Wire purge into your deployment process through the API rather than clicking a dashboard — KeyCDN offers instant purge for exactly this. The more serious failure is caching authenticated pages, where a logged-in page served from cache to the wrong visitor is a data breach rather than a bug. Test authenticated routes explicitly before going live.

Only the part that is slow because of distance. A CDN accelerates static assets by serving them from a node near the visitor, which genuinely helps with images, scripts and stylesheets. It does not help with a page that takes three seconds to generate: the first visitor at every node still waits for the origin. Fix server response time first, then add caching — otherwise you have added a bill and a cache invalidation problem without addressing the actual bottleneck.